Microstructure analysis of welding fume of low and medium carbon steels

2.1. Welding fume collection

The welding fume sample was obtained from the fume of electrodes used in low and medium carbon steels and their electric arc welding since carbon steels are the most commonly used materials in the world (Golbabaei and Khadem, 2015Golbabaei, F., Khadem, M. (2015). Air pollution in welding processes - Assessment and control methods. In Current Air Quality Issues. Chapter 2, In Tech, pp. 33-63. ). These particles were deposited by vacuuming to a ceramic filter at the room temperature. The studies were carried out in the Material Characterization Laboratory at Karamanoğlu Mehmetbey University, Scientific and Technological Researches Application and Research Center.

2.2. Micro structure analysis

The fume particles were aspirated at room temperature and collected in a ceramic filter. Microstructure analyses were performed with a field emission SEM (HITACHI SU5000) equipped with EDS operating at 10 kV. IR spectroscopy (Bruker Vertex 70 ATR) was used to measure the FTIR spectrum of the sample. The data were collected by vibration frequencies at 4000-400 cm^-1scanning range at 4 cm^-1 spectral resolution. X-ray diffraction phase analysis was performed with a Bruker D8 ADVACE with DAVINCI XRD (Cu-Kα radiation, λ = 1,5406 Å in the range 10° ≤ 2θ ≤ 90° operated at 40 kV and 40 mA) with secondary beam graphite monochromator. The phase analyses were characterized by the data obtained from the Diffract EVA software and the International Centre for Diffraction Data (ICCD).

3.1. Characterization by XRD

The composition of the welding fume particles comprises different structures due to the cooling mechanism and the agglomerated method. X-ray diffraction studies revealed that approximately 90% of the fume is crystal structure (Fig. 1). Since the source fume particles are composed of many elements and molecules according to the results of the EDS and FTIR analyses, many peaks of XRD phase analysis were obtained (Fig. 1). According to EDS analysis, there were many elements in the structure. X-ray diffraction analysis revealed that different compounds had strong peaks at the same point. The peak in the same range indicated the presence of more than one compound. The peaks of the compounds given in Table 1, were the strongest matches.

Since welding fumes consist of ultra-fine particles, these structures were essentially shapeless. The structures of the phases obtained from the XRD analysis given in Table 1 were composed of different crystal lattice structures as reported in previous studies (Ehrman et al., 1999Ehrman, S.H., Friedlander, S.K., Zachariah, M.R. (1999). Phase segregation in binary SiO₂/TiO₂ and SiO₂/Fe₂O₃ nanoparticle aerosols formed in a premixed flame. J. Mater. Res. 14 (12), 4551-4561. https://doi.org/10.1557/JMR.1999.0617.; Stebounova et al., 2018Stebounova, L.V., Gonzalez-Pech, N.I., Peters, T.M., Grassian, V.H. (2018). Physicochemical properties of air discharge-generated manganese oxide nanoparticles: comparison to welding fumes. Environ. Sci.: Nano 5 (3), 696-707. https://doi.org/10.1039/c7en01046j.). During the condensation of these particles, separate molecules may get together to form different phases in a single structure. In some structures, other oxide shells could be found around the iron oxide core. Therefore, particle structures are generally heterogeneous (Jenkins and Eagar, 2005bJenkins, N.T., Eagar, T.W. (2005b). Chemical analysis of welding fume particles. Weld. J. 84 (6), 87-93.).

Welding fume is a product of high temperature. It is possible that a large number of elements or molecules present in the body can form very different compounds at these elevated temperatures. Based on this, information on the compounds giving peaks in the XRD analysis of the fume material was given in Table 1. When Table 2 was examined, it is very difficult to analyze the structure in detail due to the elements which can be included in the structure uncontrolled from the atmosphere depending on the chemical content of the materials used in forming the welding arc or due to the effect of high temperature. However, it is possible to say that Fe and Mn-based structures are predominant. It is understood from the XRD analyses that intermetallics such as NiAl, TiNi are formed in the structure due to high temperature. When the peaks obtained by XRD were evaluated together with EDS and FTIR analyses, Be element BeO, K element K₂O, Ca element CaO, V element V1₆O₃, Ti element Zn₂TiO₄, Ni₂Ti₄O, W element W₃O₈, and Cr element CrO are available in the structure forming Si element SiO₂. X-Ray diffraction analysis showed that the dominant phase in the whole fume was highly correlated with Fe₃O₄ in the magnetite structure and Fe₂O₃ in the hematite structure which gives strong peaks (Jenkins and Eagar, 2005bJenkins, N.T., Eagar, T.W. (2005b). Chemical analysis of welding fume particles. Weld. J. 84 (6), 87-93.). Other possible structures were MgO, K₂CO₃, Na₂CO₃ and MnFe₂O₄. The results of the analysis reveal that welding fume contains various oxides in very complex structures and different combinations.

3.2. Characterization by scanning electron microscopy

The images of such structures were difficult to analyses with SEM. The small welding fume particles formed larger spherical agglomerated particles by the cooling mechanism from vapour state. These agglomerates appear on the micrographs as foam or finely mixed hair (Fig. 2) (Jenkins and Eagar, 2005bJenkins, N.T., Eagar, T.W. (2005b). Chemical analysis of welding fume particles. Weld. J. 84 (6), 87-93.). However, larger particles can also be produced by spattering from the welding arc. Large particles were composed of Al, Si, K, Na, F and water-soluble compounds, while small particles were predominantly composed of heavy metals such as Fe, Ni, Mo, Mn, Cr and their oxides.

The welding fume was shown in Table 1, where the metallic elements which were present in the composition are represented by different % atomic ratios in the form of compounds. The elements in the structure such as Be, Ca, Cl, Cr, Fe, Mn, K, Si, Ti and V were found to be atomically higher than 1% due to the welded material and the structure of the electrode. In addition, when the results of XRD and EDS analyses were examined together, the elements such as Al, Br, Co, Mg, Mo, Na, Nb, Ni, P, Pd, S, Zn, and Zr were found to be less than 1% or in trace amount. Since the temperature reached at the source is about 4000 ºC (Palmer and Eaton, 2001Palmer, W.G., Eaton, J.C. (2001). Effects of Welding on Health, XIV. American Welding Society, pp. 1-66.) all elements in the structure are almost gaseous. During the gas condensation of welding fumes, the amount of O added from the atmosphere to the composition is high in concentration. Metallic nanostructure particles tend to compound rapidly with O. This tendency leads to the formation of high amounts of metal oxides, the main element of the fume concentration.

When the SEM micrograph in 110x magnification was examined in Fig. 2, regarding fume morphology, the structure consisting of oxide deposits and predominantly spherical particles on the surface is striking. When the EDS analysis of Fig. 2 was examined in Table 2, it is seen that the elements Mn, Fe, Ti, Ca, Si, V, Cr, Cl, K and Be were atomically high in the structure.

Figure 3a shows three different types of particles in the 2.000x magnification micrograph. Spherical particles are predominantly seen in the micrograph. These were the particles flaking during condensation and are the most commonly observed particles at each stage. The other was common, although a much lower amount of isolated spherical particles is present. The third was the irregularly shaped particles with the lowest density. When the EDS analysis conducted in point 1of Fig. 3a was examined in Table 2, it is seen that Mn, Br, Ti, Ca, Si, V, Cr, K and Be elements were atomically high. When the EDS analysis of point 2 in Fig. 3a was examined in Table 2, it is seen that the elements Ti, Mn, Si, Cl, Cr, Ca, K, V, Be and Pd were also atomically high.

When the EDS analysis of point 3 in Fig. 3 is examined in Table 2, it is seen that the elements Ti, Mn, Si, Cr, Ca, K, V and Be were atomically high. The micrograph of spherical particles constituting the majority of the fume morphology was given in Fig. 3b in 5.000x magnification. When the EDS analysis of point 1 of Fig. 3b is examined in Table 2, it is seen that the elements Mn, Fe, Ti, Ca, Si, V, Cr, K and Be were atomically high. When the EDS analysis of point 2 of Fig. 3b is examined in Table 2, it is seen that the elements Mn, Fe, Ti, Ca, Si, V, Cr, K and Be were atomically high. When the EDS analysis of point 3 of Fig. 3b is examined in Table 2, it is seen that the elements Mn, Fe, Ti, Ca, Si, V, Cr, Cl, K and Be were atomically high. When the EDS analysis of Fig. 3b in Table 2 is examined, it was found that the elements Mn, Fe, Ti, Ca, Si, V, Cr, K were atomically high. The micrograph of spherical particles of different sizes and particles which tend to agglomerate is given in Fig. 3c at 10.000x magnification. The spherical particle size is shown in Fig. 3d in 20.000x magnification. When the EDS analysis of the surface of the micrograph was analysed in Table 2, it was found that the elements Fe, Si, P, Cl, K, Ca, Ti, V, Cr, and Mn were atomically high. Particle morphology needs to be considered as it determines the surface area of a part and the aerodynamic diameter of the particles. A pellet has a much larger surface area than the individual spherical particle having the same cross-section. These agglomerates also have different aerodynamic properties that can affect the degree to which they can be inhaled (Sowards et al., 2008Sowards, J.W., Ramirez, A.J., Lippold, J.C., Dickinson, D.W. (2008). Characterization procedure for the analysis of arc welding fume. Weld. J. 87 (3), 76-83.). When EDS analysis was evaluated in general, it was found that Be, Fe, Si, Cl, K, Ca, Ti, V, Cr, and Mn elements were found to be high in each point examined. When evaluated together with FTIR and XRD analyses, it reveals that the structure is composed of the molecules and compounds belonging to the elements that are detected more atomically.

Smaller particles are subjected to higher degrees of overcooling in the first fume vapor. This causes the formation of primary particles in the fumes produced during welding. Thus, metallic particles in the chemical elements found in the welding are condensed and nucleated. The elements that are lighter in the fume may not be involved in nucleation and may be vented into the atmosphere. This resulted in the formation of higher amounts of elements such as Be, Fe, Si, Cl, K, Ca, Ti, V, Cr and Mn in the source fume composition (Sowards et al., 2010Sowards, J. W., Ramirez, A. J., Dickinson, D. W., Lippold, J.C. (2010). Characterization of welding fume from SMAW electrodes-Part II. Weld. J. 89, 82-90. ). Other structures consist of nanoparticles having multiple oxidation states, which are formed as amorphous or single nanoparticles or agglomerates which have been able to achieve compounding capacity during condensation.

3.3. Characterization by FTIR

FTIR measurements were performed to investigate the bonds of functional free and complex molecules in the source fume (Fig. 4). According to the EDS analysis of the welding fume sample, the bonding structures of the metallic-based elements which are more than 1% by weight are examined. According to the peak values shown in Fig. 4; 3296, peaks in the band range of 2921 cm^-1 (Ehrman et al., 1999Ehrman, S.H., Friedlander, S.K., Zachariah, M.R. (1999). Phase segregation in binary SiO₂/TiO₂ and SiO₂/Fe₂O₃ nanoparticle aerosols formed in a premixed flame. J. Mater. Res. 14 (12), 4551-4561. https://doi.org/10.1557/JMR.1999.0617.; Jenkins et al., 2005aJenkins, N.T., Eagar, T.W. (2005a). Fume formation from spatter oxidation during arc welding. Sci. Technol. Weld. Joi. 10 (5), 537-543. https://doi.org/10.1179/174329305X48310.; Jenkins and Eagar, 2005bJenkins, N.T., Eagar, T.W. (2005b). Chemical analysis of welding fume particles. Weld. 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Dyes Pigm. 164, 7-13. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dyepig.2019.01.004.; Yang et al., 2019Yang, K., Yi, H., Tang, X., Zhao, S., Gao, F., Huang, Y., Yang, Z., Wang, J., Shi, Y., Xie, X. (2019). Reducing the competitive adsorption between SO₂ and NO by Al₂O₃@TiO₂ core-shell structure adsorbent. Chem. Eng. J. 364, 420-427. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cej.2019.02.009.), indicate O-H bonding in the structure. This indicates the presence of an H₂O molecule. Peaks in the band range of 1012 and 420 cm^-1 were obtained due to the tension of the metal oxide bonds. The FTIR peaks of the elements in the source fume obtained according to EDS analysis were consistent with the literature Al-O (Jamal et al., 2014Jamal, R., Osman, Y., Rahman, A., Ali, A., Zhang, Y., Abdiryim, T. (2014). Solid-state synthesis and photocatalytic activity of polyterthiophene derivatives/TiO₂ nanocomposites. Materials 7 (5), 3786-3801. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma7053786.; Benykhlef et al., 2016Benykhlef, S., Bekhoukh, A., Berenguer, R., Benyoucef, A., Morallon, E. (2016). PANI-derived polymer/Al₂O₃ nanocomposites: synthesis, characterization, and electrochemical studies. Colloid Polym. Sci. 294 (12), 1877-1885. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00396-016-3955-y.; Yi et al., 2018Yi, H., Yang, K., Tang, X., Zhao, S., Gao, F., Huang, Y., Yang, Z., Wang, Y., Xie, X. (2018). Simultaneous Desulfurization and Denitrification on the SAPO-34@Al₂O₃ Core-Shell Structure Adsorbent. Energy Fuels 32 (11), 11694-11700. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.energyfuels.8b02847.), Be-O (Altunal et al., 2019Altunal, V., Guckan, V., Ozdemir, A., Can, N., Yegingil, Z. (2019). Luminescence characteristics of Al-and Ca-doped BeO obtained via a sol-gel method. J. Phys. Chem. Solids 131, 230-242. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpcs.2019.04.003.), Br-O (Naushad et al., 2015Naushad, M., Khan, M.R., ALOthman, Z.A., AlSohaimi, I., Rodriguez-Reinoso, F., Turki, T.M., Ali, R. (2015). Removal of BrO₃-from drinking water samples using newly developed agricultural waste-based activated carbon and its determination by ultra-performance liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry. Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res. 22 (20), 15853-15865. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-015-4786-y.), C-O, CaO and CH (Scaccia et al., 2019Scaccia, S., Vanga, G., Gattia, D.M., Stendardo, S. (2019). Preparation of CaO-based sorbent from coal fly ash cenospheres for calcium looping process. J. Alloy. Compd. 801, 123-129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jallcom.2019.06.064.), Cd-O (Karthik et al., 2019Karthik, K., Dhanuskodi, S., Gobinath, C., Prabukumar, S., Sivaramakrishnan, S. (2019). Ultrasonic-assisted CdO-MgO nanocomposite for multifunctional applications. Mater. Technol. 34 (7), 403-414. https://doi.org/10.1080/10667857.2019.1574963.), Cl-O (Wang et al., 2019aWang, S., Zhou, S., Huang, J., Zhao, G., Liu, Y. (2019a). Attaching ZrO₂ nanoparticles onto the surface of graphene oxide via electrostatic self-assembly for enhanced mechanical and tribological performance of phenolic resin composites. J. Mater. Sci. 54 (11), 8247-8261. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10853-019-03512-w.), Co-O (Gibot and Vidal, 2010Gibot, P., Vidal, L. (2010). Original synthesis of chromium (III) oxide nanoparticles. J. Eur. Ceram. Soc. 30 (4), 911-915. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jeurceramsoc.2009.09.019.), Cr-O (Basu et al., 2011Basu, M., Sinha, A.K., Pradhan, M., Sarkar, S., Negishi, Y., Pal, T. (2011). Fabrication and functionalization of CuO for tuning superhydrophobic thin film and cotton wool. J. Phys. Chem. C 115 (43), 20953-20963. https://doi.org/10.1021/jp206178x.; Farzaneh and Najafi, 2011Farzaneh, F., Najafi, M. (2011). Synthesis and characterization of Cr₂O₃ nanoparticles with triethanolamine in water under microwave irradiation. J. Sci. I. R. Iran 22 (4), 329-333. ; Abdullah et al., 2014Abdullah, M.M., Rajab, F.M., Al-Abbas, S.M. (2014). Structural and optical characterization of Cr₂O₃ nanostructures: Evaluation of its dielectric properties. AIP Advances 4 (2), 027121. https://doi.org/10.1063/1.4867012.), Cu-O (Zheng et al., 2010Zheng, M., Liu, Y., Jiang, K., Xiao, Y., Yuan, D. (2010). Alcohol-assisted hydrothermal carbonization to fabricate spheroidal carbons with a tunable shape and aspect ratio. Carbon 48 (4), 1224-1233. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.carbon.2009.11.045.; Sahai et al., 2016Sahai, A., Goswami, N., Kaushik, S.D., Tripathi, S. (2016). Cu/Cu₂O/CuO nanoparticles: Novel synthesis by exploding wire technique and extensive characterization. Appl. Surf. Sci. 390, 974-983. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apsusc.2016.09.005.; Ponmudi et al., 2019Ponmudi, S., Sivakumar, R., Sanjeeviraja, C., Gopalakrishnan, C., Jeyadheepan, K. (2019). Tuning the morphology of Cr₂O₃: CuO (50:50) thin films by RF magnetron sputtering for room temperature sensing application. Appl. Surf. Sci. 466, 703-714. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apsusc.2018.10.096.), Fe-O (Abdullah et al., 2014Abdullah, M.M., Rajab, F.M., Al-Abbas, S.M. (2014). Structural and optical characterization of Cr₂O₃ nanostructures: Evaluation of its dielectric properties. AIP Advances 4 (2), 027121. https://doi.org/10.1063/1.4867012.; Golbabaei and Khadem, 2015Golbabaei, F., Khadem, M. (2015). Air pollution in welding processes - Assessment and control methods. In Current Air Quality Issues. Chapter 2, In Tech, pp. 33-63. ), Mn-O (Chen and He, 2008Chen, H., He, J. (2008). Facile synthesis of monodisperse manganese oxide nanostructures and their application in water treatment. J. Phys. Chem. C 112 (45), 17540-17545. https://doi.org/10.1021/jp806160g.; Sevilla and Fuertes, 2009Sevilla, M., Fuertes, A.B. (2009). Chemical and structural properties of carbonaceous products obtained by hydrothermal carbonization of saccharides. Chem. Eur. J. 15 (16), 4195-4203. https://doi.org/10.1002/chem.200802097.; Lin et al., 2012Lin, C.C., Chen, C.J., Chiang, R.K. (2012). Facile synthesis of monodisperse MnO nanoparticles from bulk MnO. J. Cryst. Growth 338 (1), 152-156. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcrysgro.2011.10.022.), Mo-O (Abinaya et al., 2019Abinaya, M., Saravanakumar, K., Jeyabharathi, E., Muthuraj, V. (2019). Synthesis and Characterization of 1D-MoO₃ Nanorods Using Abutilon indicum Extract for the Photoreduction of Hexavalent Chromium. J. Inorg. Organomet. Polym. Mater. 29 (1), 101-110. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10904-018-0970-0.), N-O (Boroń et al., 2019Boroń, P., Rutkowska, M., Gil, B., Marszałek, B., Chmielarz, L., Dzwigaj, S. (2019). Experimental Evidence of the Mechanism of Selective Catalytic Reduction of NO with NH₃ over Fe-Containing BEA Zeolites. ChemSusChem 12 (3), 692-705. https://doi.org/10.1002/cssc.201801883.; Yang et al., 2019Yang, K., Yi, H., Tang, X., Zhao, S., Gao, F., Huang, Y., Yang, Z., Wang, J., Shi, Y., Xie, X. (2019). Reducing the competitive adsorption between SO₂ and NO by Al₂O₃@TiO₂ core-shell structure adsorbent. Chem. Eng. J. 364, 420-427. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cej.2019.02.009.), P-O (Kono et al., 2019Kono, T., Watanabe, A., Kanno, T., Ootani, Y., Tamamura, R., Sakae, T., Okada, H. (2019). Second Order Differentiation Analysis of Micro FTIR Method Revealed the Variable Erosion Characteristics of Carbonated Soft Drink for the Individual Human Teeth Enamel. J. Hard Tissue Biol. 28 (1), 7-12. https://doi.org/10.2485/jhtb.28.7.), Pd-O (Reddy et al., 2019Reddy, G.K., Peck, T.C., Roberts, C.A. (2019). “PdO vs. PtO”-The Influence of PGM Oxide Promotion of Co₃O₄ Spinel on Direct NO Decomposition Activity. Catalysts 9 (1). 1-18. https://doi.org/10.3390/catal9010062.), S-O (Yang et al., 2019Yang, K., Yi, H., Tang, X., Zhao, S., Gao, F., Huang, Y., Yang, Z., Wang, J., Shi, Y., Xie, X. (2019). Reducing the competitive adsorption between SO₂ and NO by Al₂O₃@TiO₂ core-shell structure adsorbent. Chem. Eng. J. 364, 420-427. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cej.2019.02.009.), Si-O (Saikia and Parthasarathy, 2010Saikia, B.J., Parthasarathy, G. (2010). Fourier transform infrared spectroscopic characterization of kaolinite from Assam and Meghalaya, Northeastern India. J. Mod. Phys. 1 (4), 206-210. https://doi.org/10.4236/jmp.2010.14031.; Vaculikova et al., 2011Vaculikova, L., Plevová, E., Vallová, S., Koutnik, I. (2011). Characterization and differentiation of kaolinites from selected Czech deposits using infrared spectroscopy and differential thermal analysis. Acta Geodyn. Geomater. 8 (1), 59-67. ; Diko et al., 2016Diko, M., Ekosse, G., Ogola, J. (2016). Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy and thermal analyses of kaolinitic clays from South Africa and Cameroon. Acta Geodyn. Geomater. 13 (2), 149-158. https://doi.org/10.13168/AGG.2015.0052.; Bahah et al., 2019Bahah, S., Nacef, S., Chebli, D., Bouguettoucha, A., Djellouli, B. (2019). A New Highly Efficient Algerian Clay for the Removal of Heavy Metals of Cu (II) and Pb (II) from Aqueous Solutions: Characterization, Fractal, Kinetics, and Isotherm Analysis. Arab. J. Sci. Eng. 45 (1), 205-218. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13369-019-03985-6.; Mohammadi et al., 2019Mohammadi, M., Khorrami, M.K., Ghasemzadeh, H. (2019). ATR-FTIR spectroscopy and chemometric techniques for determination of polymer solution viscosity in the presence of SiO₂ nanoparticle and salinity. Spectrochim. Acta A Mol. Biomol. Spectrosc. 220, 117049. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.saa.2019.04.041.), Ti-O (Jamal et al., 2014Jamal, R., Osman, Y., Rahman, A., Ali, A., Zhang, Y., Abdiryim, T. (2014). Solid-state synthesis and photocatalytic activity of polyterthiophene derivatives/TiO₂ nanocomposites. Materials 7 (5), 3786-3801. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma7053786.), V-O (Wang et al., 2006Wang, H., Yu, M., Lin, C.K., Lin, J. (2006). Core-shell structured SiO₂@ YVO₄: Dy³⁺/Sm³⁺ phosphor particles: sol-gel preparation and characterization. J. Colloid Interf. Sci. 300 (1), 176-182. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcis.2006.03.052.; Habtemariam et al., 2019Habtemariam, A.B., Kabtamu, D.M., Maaza, M. (2019). One-step hydrothermal synthesis and characterization of Mg/Mo co-doped VO₂ nanorods. SN Appl. Sci. 1 (5), 413. https://doi.org/10.1007/s42452-019-0448-x.), Zr-O (Wang et al., 2019bWang, S., Wu, S.H., Fang, W.L., Guo, X.F., Wang, H. (2019b). Synthesis of non-doped and non-modified carbon dots with high quantum yield and crystallinity by one-pot hydrothermal method using a single carbon source and used for ClO detection. Dyes Pigm. 164, 7-13. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dyepig.2019.01.004.) metal oxides and oxide structures in different structures because metal oxides generally exhibit peaks below 1000 cm^-1, which may be caused by inter-atomic vibrations (Lagashetty et al., 2007Lagashetty, A., Havanoor, V., Basavaraja, S., Balaji, S.D., Venkataraman, A. (2007). Microwave-assisted route for synthesis of nanosized metal oxides. Sci. Technol. Adv. Mater. 8 (6), 484-493. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.stam.2007.07.001.).

Welded metal and additional metal have a rich chemical composition. During joining, a certain amount of this rich structure burns or evaporates and thus forms welding fumes. Welding fumes contain very different structures by its nature. 1139, 1257, 1407, 2848 and 2921 cm^-1 peaks obtained from FTIR analysis were Al-O (Jamal et al., 2014Jamal, R., Osman, Y., Rahman, A., Ali, A., Zhang, Y., Abdiryim, T. (2014). Solid-state synthesis and photocatalytic activity of polyterthiophene derivatives/TiO₂ nanocomposites. Materials 7 (5), 3786-3801. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma7053786.; Benykhlef et al., 2016Benykhlef, S., Bekhoukh, A., Berenguer, R., Benyoucef, A., Morallon, E. (2016). PANI-derived polymer/Al₂O₃ nanocomposites: synthesis, characterization, and electrochemical studies. Colloid Polym. Sci. 294 (12), 1877-1885. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00396-016-3955-y.; Yi et al., 2018Yi, H., Yang, K., Tang, X., Zhao, S., Gao, F., Huang, Y., Yang, Z., Wang, Y., Xie, X. (2018). Simultaneous Desulfurization and Denitrification on the SAPO-34@Al₂O₃ Core-Shell Structure Adsorbent. Energy Fuels 32 (11), 11694-11700. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.energyfuels.8b02847.), Cl-O (Wang et al., 2019aWang, S., Zhou, S., Huang, J., Zhao, G., Liu, Y. (2019a). Attaching ZrO₂ nanoparticles onto the surface of graphene oxide via electrostatic self-assembly for enhanced mechanical and tribological performance of phenolic resin composites. J. Mater. Sci. 54 (11), 8247-8261. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10853-019-03512-w.), Co-O (Gibot and Vidal, 2010Gibot, P., Vidal, L. (2010). Original synthesis of chromium (III) oxide nanoparticles. J. Eur. Ceram. Soc. 30 (4), 911-915. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jeurceramsoc.2009.09.019.), C-H and CC (Scaccia et al., 2019Scaccia, S., Vanga, G., Gattia, D.M., Stendardo, S. (2019). Preparation of CaO-based sorbent from coal fly ash cenospheres for calcium looping process. J. Alloy. Compd. 801, 123-129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jallcom.2019.06.064.), C-F (Karunathilaka et al., 2019Karunathilaka, S.R., Choi, S.H., Mossoba, M.M., Yakes, B.J., Brückner, L., Ellsworth, Z., Srigley, C.T. (2019). Rapid classification and quantification of marine oil omega-3 supplements using ATR-FTIR, FT-NIR and chemometrics. J. Food Compos. Anal. 77, 9-19. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jfca.2018.12.009.), C-Br (Nicasio-Collazo et al., 2019Nicasio-Collazo, J., Ramírez-García, G., Flores-Álamo, M., Gutiérrez-Granados, S., Peralta-Hernández, J.M., Maldonado, J.L., Oscar, J., Jimenez-Halla, C., Serrano, O. (2019). A novel coordination mode of κ¹-N-Br-pyridylbenz-(imida, oxa or othia)-zole to Pt(_II): synthesis, characterization, electrochemical and structural analysis. RSC Adv. 9 (25), 14033-14039. https://doi.org/10.1039/c9ra01856e.), N-H (Oswald et al., 2019Oswald, S., Suhm, M.A., Coussan, S. (2019). Incremental NH stretching downshift through stepwise nitrogen complexation of pyrrole: a combined jet expansion and matrix isolation study. Phys. Chem. Chem. Phys. 21 (3), 1277-1284. https://doi.org/10.1039/C8CP07053A.), C-N (Panja and Ghosh, 2019Panja, A., Ghosh, K. (2019). Cholesterol-based simple supramolecular gelators: an approach to selective sensing of CN-ion with application in dye adsorption. Supramol. Chem. 31 (4), 239-250. https://doi.org/10.1080/10610278.2018.1562190.), Fe-O and Fe₂O₄ (Abdullah et al., 2014Abdullah, M.M., Rajab, F.M., Al-Abbas, S.M. (2014). Structural and optical characterization of Cr₂O₃ nanostructures: Evaluation of its dielectric properties. AIP Advances 4 (2), 027121. https://doi.org/10.1063/1.4867012.; Golbabaei and Khadem, 2015Golbabaei, F., Khadem, M. (2015). Air pollution in welding processes - Assessment and control methods. In Current Air Quality Issues. Chapter 2, In Tech, pp. 33-63. ), F₂O₃ (Oberdörster et al., 2005Oberdörster, G., Maynard, A., Donaldson, K., Castranova, V., Fitzpatrick, J., Ausman, K., Karn, B., Kreyling, W., Lai, D., Olin, S., Warheti, D., Yang, H. (2005). Principles for characterizing the potential human health effects from exposure to nanomaterials: elements of a screening strategy. Part. Fibre Toxicol. 2 (1), 1-35. https://doi.org/10.1186/1743-8977-2-8.), Mn-O (Jamal et al., 2014Jamal, R., Osman, Y., Rahman, A., Ali, A., Zhang, Y., Abdiryim, T. (2014). Solid-state synthesis and photocatalytic activity of polyterthiophene derivatives/TiO₂ nanocomposites. Materials 7 (5), 3786-3801. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma7053786.; Alias et al., 2019Alias, S.S., Harun, Z., Azhar, F.H., Yusof, K.N., Jamalludin, M.R., Hubadillah, S.K., Basri, S.N., Al-Harthi, M.A. (2019). Enhancing the performance of a hybrid porous polysulfone membrane impregnated with green Ag/AgO additives derived from the Parkia speciosa. Vacuum 163, 301-311. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.vacuum.2019.02.034.), N-O (Boroń et al., 2019Boroń, P., Rutkowska, M., Gil, B., Marszałek, B., Chmielarz, L., Dzwigaj, S. (2019). Experimental Evidence of the Mechanism of Selective Catalytic Reduction of NO with NH₃ over Fe-Containing BEA Zeolites. ChemSusChem 12 (3), 692-705. https://doi.org/10.1002/cssc.201801883.; Yang et al., 2019Yang, K., Yi, H., Tang, X., Zhao, S., Gao, F., Huang, Y., Yang, Z., Wang, J., Shi, Y., Xie, X. (2019). Reducing the competitive adsorption between SO₂ and NO by Al₂O₃@TiO₂ core-shell structure adsorbent. Chem. Eng. J. 364, 420-427. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cej.2019.02.009.), P-O (Kono et al., 2019Kono, T., Watanabe, A., Kanno, T., Ootani, Y., Tamamura, R., Sakae, T., Okada, H. (2019). Second Order Differentiation Analysis of Micro FTIR Method Revealed the Variable Erosion Characteristics of Carbonated Soft Drink for the Individual Human Teeth Enamel. J. Hard Tissue Biol. 28 (1), 7-12. https://doi.org/10.2485/jhtb.28.7.), Pd-O (Reddy et al., 2019Reddy, G.K., Peck, T.C., Roberts, C.A. (2019). “PdO vs. PtO”-The Influence of PGM Oxide Promotion of Co₃O₄ Spinel on Direct NO Decomposition Activity. Catalysts 9 (1). 1-18. https://doi.org/10.3390/catal9010062.), Si-O (Saikia and Parthasarathy, 2010Saikia, B.J., Parthasarathy, G. (2010). Fourier transform infrared spectroscopic characterization of kaolinite from Assam and Meghalaya, Northeastern India. J. Mod. Phys. 1 (4), 206-210. https://doi.org/10.4236/jmp.2010.14031.; Vaculikova et al., 2011Vaculikova, L., Plevová, E., Vallová, S., Koutnik, I. (2011). Characterization and differentiation of kaolinites from selected Czech deposits using infrared spectroscopy and differential thermal analysis. Acta Geodyn. Geomater. 8 (1), 59-67. ; Diko et al., 2016Diko, M., Ekosse, G., Ogola, J. (2016). Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy and thermal analyses of kaolinitic clays from South Africa and Cameroon. Acta Geodyn. Geomater. 13 (2), 149-158. https://doi.org/10.13168/AGG.2015.0052.; Bahah et al., 2019Bahah, S., Nacef, S., Chebli, D., Bouguettoucha, A., Djellouli, B. (2019). A New Highly Efficient Algerian Clay for the Removal of Heavy Metals of Cu (II) and Pb (II) from Aqueous Solutions: Characterization, Fractal, Kinetics, and Isotherm Analysis. Arab. J. Sci. Eng. 45 (1), 205-218. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13369-019-03985-6.; Mohammadi et al., 2019Mohammadi, M., Khorrami, M.K., Ghasemzadeh, H. (2019). ATR-FTIR spectroscopy and chemometric techniques for determination of polymer solution viscosity in the presence of SiO₂ nanoparticle and salinity. Spectrochim. Acta A Mol. Biomol. Spectrosc. 220, 117049. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.saa.2019.04.041.) functional due to the fact that stretching of bonds of functional groups has increased.